1 Snyder, Louis. L. Louis L. Snyder's Historical Guide to World War II. Westport, CT, Greenwood, 1982. p. 126.
2 "World War Two: The Road to Victory." Special pull-out section. Washington Times, August. 14, 1995. p. 9. Chart, "World War II by the Numbers." Source for statistics: Goralski, Robert. World War Two Almanac, 1931-1945: A Political and Military Record. New York, Bonanza Books, 1981.
3 Marcel Bradot et al., eds. The Historical Encyclopedia of World War II. New York, Facts on File, 1980. p. 131-3.
4 Roosevelt, Franklin D. The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Comp. by Samuel I. Rosenman. New York, Harper, 1950. 1941 volume, p. 514-6.
5 P.L. 328, 55 Stat 795 (1941).
6 Department of Defense. Office of the Secretary of Defense. Washington Headquarters Services. Directorate for Information Operations and Reports. Department of Defense Selected Manpower Statistics. Table 2-23, Principal Wars in Which the United States Participated. U.S. Military Personnel Serving and Casualties. This publication is now only available online, and this table can be found on the DIOR Web site at [http://web.1whs.osd.mil/mmid/m01/SMS223R.HTM].
7 CRS Issue Brief IB92101, POWs and MIAs: Status and Accounting Issues.
8 Stenger, Charles A. American Prisoners of War in WWI, WWII, Korea, Vietnam, Persian Gulf, Somalia, Bosnia, and Kosovo. Statistical Data Concerning Numbers Captured, Repatriated, and Still Alive as of January 1, 2000. Prepared for the DVA Advisory Committee on Former Prisoners of War, Mental Health Strategic Group, VHA, DVA, American Ex-Prisoners of War Association. [n.p., Bethesda, MD 2000] 7 p. Mimeographed.
9 See statistics on WWII POWs and internees from the Center for Internee Rights, Inc an advocacy group, at its Web site [http:/www.expows.com].
10 Ibid.
11 Stenger, American Prisoners of War in WWI, WWII, Korea... Plus several telephone discussions with Dr. Stenger 1999-2000.
12 Office of the [Army] Provost Marshal General. Prisoner of War Division. American Civilian Internees Formerly Detained by the Japanese Government (including War, Navy, and Merchant Marine Personnel), 7 December 1941-14 August 1945. CFN-127. [n.p., n.d.] The author has the title page and first and last pages of the tally contained in this threevolume, 350+- page document. The last page of this tally has a handwritten correction to the total number of internees changing the number to 13,979 from 13,979.
13 Statistics on WWII POWs and Internees from the Center for Internee Rights, Inc.
14 U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Subcommittee on Commerce and Finance. War Claims and Enemy Property Legislation. Hearing, 86th Congress, first session. Washington, GPO, 1959.
The head of the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission, Whitney Gillilland, stated in the hearing that the total amount of "... all sums covered [transferred] into the Treasury pursuant to section 39 of the Trading With the Enemy Act, that is, the net proceeds of the liquidation of vested World War II German and Japanese assets by the Office of Alien Property in the Department of Justice ... totaled $228,750,000 ... and there was a balance of a little over $500,000 remaining" (p. 3-4). The December 31, 1957 Report of the Commission stated that of an estimated $225 million in vested assets of Germany and Japan, approximately $171 million were of German origin and $54 million were of Japanese origin. Claims against Italy were paid from a $5 million fund provided by Italy. The Report also stated that awards paid for POW claims against Japan were approximately $71.6 million and that awards for civilian internees' claims against Japan were approximately $18.1 million, while awards for U.S. POW claims against Germany totaled approximately $51.78 million.- Foreign Claims Settlement Commission. Seventh Semiannual Report to Congress for the Period Ending December 31, 1957. Washington, GPO, 1958.
15 Interview with David E. Bradley, Chief Counsel, Foreign Claims Settlement Commission. 1/24/00. Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1954. 68 Stat. 1279; 19 Federal Register 3985, July 1, 1954.
16 For information on this program, go to the Department of Justice's Foreign Claims Settlement Commission Web site at [http://www.usdoj.gov/fcsc/].
17 U.S. Department of Justice. Foreign Claims Settlement Commission. 1998 Annual Report. Washington, GPO, 1999. p. 69. Footnote 1 to Table of Completed Programs, War Claims Act of 1948.
18 Foreign Claims Settlement Commission, Decisions and Annotations, p. 666. In 1962, P.L. 87-617 amended the War Claims Act to add detention benefits for Guamanians captured on Wake Island by Japan.
19 U.S. House. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Amending the Trading with the Enemy Act; Creating A Commission to Make Injury and Report with Respect to War Claims; and Providing Relief for Internees in Certain Cases. Report to accompany H.R. 4044. H.Rept. 976, 80th Congress, first session. Washington, GPO, 1947. According to this report, a distinction was made between American civilians who were in Europe and Asia and who had been warned by the State Department several times before the war to leave and who had several boats sent to Europe to return them to the U. S., and American civilians who were in the Philippines and other American territories and possessions who had not been warned to leave as a matter of national policy. See, for instance, letter of the former High Commissioner to the Philippine Islands on p. 6-7, and samples of State Department warning messages in the appendix (p. 21-23).
20 Despite meetings beginning with the Potsdam Conference, July 17-August 2, 1945, and, culminating in the 2 plus 4 agreement of September 1990, no peace treaty officially ending the war with Germany was ever signed. (A treaty might have dealt with the issue of compensation of U.S. civilian internees.) For background see CRS Report 90-523, German Unification.
The first instance of internee compensation began with the Hugo Princz decision. Hugo Princz was an American citizen living with his family in Slovakia. When the United States declared war against Germany, Princz and the seven members of his family were turned over to the Nazis. He spent 3 years in Auschwitz and was the only member of his immediate family to survive. After the war, he waged a 40-year battle through the courts and Congress for reparations from Germany. Finally, in 1995, Princz and 10 other American survivors shared in a $2.1 million settlement from Germany. Subsequently, an agreement between the U.S. government and that of Germany resulted in the establishment of the Holocaust Claims Program.
In 1997, the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission ruled that only those Americans who suffered in a concentration camp or subcamp, or were made to participate in a forced labor march, were eligible for the Holocaust Claims Program. As a result of an agreement between the United States and Germany which is part of the Holocaust Claims Program, the U.S. Treasury received $18.5 million from Germany, which, reportedly, it will pay out to 235 eligible survivors in lump sum payments of $30,000 to $250,000. According to an article from the Jewish Telegraphic agency, until the 1995 Hugo Princz decision, no individuals imprisoned in Nazi camps who were U.S. citizens at the time of the war had been compensated by Germany.
Source: Ephross, Peter. U.S. Holocaust Survivors Scheduled to Receive German Reparation Funds. Jewish Telegraphic Agency, June 22, 1999 [Online]. Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS. According to David E. Bradley, Chief Counsel of the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission, all but one of these claimants participating in the Holocaust Claims Program have been paid. Phone discussion with Mr. Bradley, June 24, 2000.
21 Friedman, Leon, ed. The Law of War: A Documentary History. New York, Random House, 1972. v. 2, p. 488-522.
22 An Act to Amend Sections 6 and 7 of the War Claims Act of 1948, Chapter 167, 66 Stat. 47.
23 The VA has a list of presumptive conditions related to being a POW that has expanded over the years since WWII. See the VA Fact Sheet, ÒVA Benefits for Former Prisoners of War,Ó at its Web site [http://www.va.gov/pressrel/98fspow.htm]. See also [http://www.vba.va.gov/ro/central/indy/pow/POWPrsmp.htm] for more detail on presumptive disabilities.
24 War Claims Act of 1948, Section 5 (f)(1).
25 Phone discussion with Roberta Mosier, Office of Workers Compensation, Department of Labor, June 2, 1999, August 9, 1999, and June 22, 2000. For the time period July 1, 1998-June 30, 1999, the DOL paid out $146,555 in medical claims to 44 civilian internees from WWII. According to a handout from the Office of Workers' Compensation titled, "War Claims Act of 1948," "Unlike the department of Veteran's Affairs, which accepts a number of conditions as presumptive in ex-POWs, OWCP accepts only periodontitis on a presumptive basis."
26 According to the footnote on p. 69 in the 1998 Annual Report of the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission, the high number of denials was due to many thousands of claims by residents of U.S. territories and possessions occupied by enemy forces who were not officially listed as members of duly recognized units of the U.S. Armed Forces during WWII.
27 Foreign Claims Settlement Commission, 1998 Annual Report, p. 68-69. Under the War Claims Act of 1948, claims were also paid to reimburse U.S. affiliated and non-U.S. affiliated religious organizations and personnel who had aided U.S. armed forces and civilians in the Philippines, as well as to pay them for damage to educational and non-religious facilities in the Philippines, and for sequestration of U.S. citizen, military, and business bank accounts in the Philippines.
In 1962, P.L. 87-617 amended the War Claims Act to add detention benefits for Guamanians captured on Wake Island by the Japanese. According to the chart in the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission 1998 Annual Report (p. 63-69), of the more than $517 million paid out for WWII claims under the War Claims Act, almost $335 million was paid out under Title II, for war damage to property in certain Eastern European countries, territories attacked or occupied by the Japanese, and damage to ships, losses to insurers, and by passengers of ships, that was authorized by other 1962 amendments to the War Claims Act contained in P.L. 87-846.
28 U.S. Foreign Claims Settlement Commission. Decisions and Annotations. Washington, GPO, 1968. p. 665. Compensation was authorized by P.L. 83-744, a 1954 amendment to the War Claims Act of 1948.
29 Foreign Claims Settlement Commission, 1998 Annual Report, p. 68-69.
30 Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, War Claims and Enemy Property Legislation, p. 4. According to testimony by Whitney Gillilland, these claimants were not covered by the original Act.
31 Foreign Claims Settlement Commission, Decisions and Annotations, p. 666.
32 Fax from David Bradley, Chief Counsel, Foreign Claims Settlement Commission. July 12, 2000. This estimate for claims from the Pacific theater exclude claims sent to claimants in the Philippines.
33 The WCC listed the following "Informational Activities" in their third Semi-Annual Report to the Congress from the War Claims Commission for the Period Ending March 13, 1951: "Special letters and releases [publicizing the March 1, 1951 deadline for filing] were prepared and sent to members of Congress, to directors of veterans' agencies and governors of each State and Territory, to each member of all State legislatures in session, to other interested individuals, to veteran and internee organizations, press bureaus, weekly newspapers, and to radio stations. A total of 35,426 letters and releases were distributed in connection with this program. The Commission received press clippings from all sections of the country showing extensive use of its released material. Between January 20, 1950 and February 28, 1951, the Commission noted 8,286 column inches of war claims items. ... As noted previously, the Philippine press has given extensive coverage to the activities of the War Claims Commission as they relate to Philippine claimants" (p. 14).
34 National American Ex-POW Association, Inc., and the Center for Civilian Internee Rights, Inc. A Legislative Prospectus on American Civilian POWÕs and Hostages. [n.p. The Association and the Center] 1991. n.p.
35 Information dated December 27, 1999 from William Slany, State Department's Office of the Historian, plus accompanying pages from the International Committee of the Red Cross, from unidentified printed sources.
For information on U.S. renunciation of money due it under Article 16 of the Treaty, see also p. 4 and 13 of the Report on the Activity of the International Committee of the Red Cross For the Indemnification of Former Allied Prisoners of War in Japanese Hands (International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva, 1971). Page 38 of this document lists the total amount received from Japan plus interest as of December 31, 1970, as being SFr 71,400,288.20 (Swiss francs), which at 1970 exchange rates equaled $16,543,162. See also War Claims Arising Out of World War II. H. Doc. 67, 83rd Congress, 2nd session. Washington, GPO, 1953. p. 40-43. This contains the supplementary report of the War Claims Commission on war claims arising out of World War II.
36 Stenger, American Prisoners of War in WWI, WWII, Korea ...
37 Statistics on WWII POWs and Internees from the Center for Internee Rights, Inc.
38 American Civilian Internees Formerly Detained by the Japanese Government.
39 Falk, Stanley L. Bataan, the March of Death. Easton Press, Norwalk, CT, 1962. See p.194-200 for discussion of his process of estimating the number of deaths.
Snyder, Historical Guide to World War II, p. 68-69.
Morton, Louis. The Fall of the Philippines. Washington, Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1953, p. 467. (United States Army in World War II. The War in the Pacific). The volume covering the fall of the Philippines in the multivolume official Army history of WWII, which covered each action by the Army in minute detail, devotes only one paragraph to the Bataan Death March, noting in a footnote that "The individual surrender of units and the death march are not treated in this volume since they did not affect the course of military operations on Bataan." The footnote then refers the reader to what was then Stanley L. Falk's M.A. thesis, entitled "The Bataan Death March."
40 Striking Back At Japan, Inc. TIMEAsia, August 16, 1999.
[http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990816/payback1.html].
41 Thousands Died in Hell Ships. Associated Press, Sept. 8, 2000, story posted on the St. Augustine Record's Web site at [http://staugustine.com/stories/090800/nat_20000908. 029.shtml]. See also the listing for the U.S.S. Snook, confirming her sinking of the Arisan Maru on October 24, 1944, in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, v. VI, p. 540, (Washington, Naval History Division, Department of the Navy, 1976)
42 Torpedo Survivors Gather in Fla. AP Online. September 8, 2000. [Online] Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: ALLNWS. See listing for U.S.S. Paddle's sinking of the Shinyo Maru on September 7, 1944, in Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, v. V, p. 198.
43 Slave Labor Is Japan's Forgotten Holocaust. Litigation: Former Allied Prisoners of War, Asian Slave Laborers, 'Comfort Women" and Others Are Seeking Tens of Billions of Dollars in Reparations from Japanese Firms. Baltimore Sun, July 9, 2000. p. 6C.
44 Tribute: U.S. Honors 'Death Railway' Prisoners; Ambassador Unveils Plaque at River Kwae. Bangkok Post, September 15, 1997. p. 3. Sailors from the U.S.S. Houston and artillerymen from the "Lost Battalion," captured in Indonesia, worked on the "Death Railway." According to one article, of the 688 U.S. POWs working on the railway, 356 died "from disease, starvation and brutality inflicted by Japanese prison guards."
45 Powell, John W. Japan's Germ Warfare: The U.S. Cover-up of a War Crime. Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, v. 12, no. 4, October-Dec. 1980. p.17. See statement by Han Xiao, China's leading expert on Unit 731, that U.S. POWs were experimented on in A Half Century of Denial: The Hidden Truth About Japan's Unit 731. U.S. News and World Report, v. 119, no. 5, July 31, 1995. p. 56. See Japan Rebuffs Requests for Information about Its Germ-Warfare Atrocities, New York Times, March 4, 1999, section A, p.12, for the statement, "It is still not established, for example, whether American prisoners of war were among those experimented on."
46 Harris, Sheldon. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-945, and the American Coverup. London, New York, Routledge, 1994. p. 83-100.
47 In Search of Buried Poison. Newsweek, July 20, 1998. p. 27. A chemical warfare unit about which little is known at the present time was Unit 516, headquartered at Qiqihar in northeast China.
In 1999 the Japanese government signed an agreement with China which pledged that Japan would be responsible for demilitarizing what Japan says are some 700,000 or more shells filled with CW agents left in China after Japanese forces withdrew after their defeat in WWII. China puts this figure at 2,000,000 shells. China had claimed that these live munitions had injured or killed over 2,000 Chinese who had accidentally encountered them since 1945. See: Gov't Oks Use of Articles for Weapons Disposal in China. Japan Weekly Monitor, April 24, 2000 [Online] Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS. Japan, China OK Chemical Arms Cleanup. Asahi News Service, August 2, 1999 [Online] Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS. Cleaning Up a Poisonous China. The Japan Times, August 15, 1998 [Online]. Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS.
48 Sheldon Harris quotes Lt. Gen. Kajitsuka Ryuji, Lt. General in the Medical Service and former Chief of the Medical Administration of the Kwantung Army, as saying that he saw an imperial decree giving Ishii permission to start the initial BW operation in Manchuria in 1936 "by Command of the Emperor" and that later on Emperor Hirohito also issued a decree authorizing creation of Unit 731. Prince Mikasa, the emperor's brother, also reportedly inspected the work at Pingfan in 1943.ÑHarris, Factories of Death, p. 40 and 142. See also A Half Century of Denial. U.S. News & World Report, July 31, 1995. p. 56.
49 Harris, Factories of Death, p. 33-35. Bacteriological Warfare Museum to Open in Harbin Next June. Asian Political News. [Online] Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS. According to news accounts, in June 2001 the Chinese plan to open to the public part of a "Unit 731 Bacteriological Warfare Museum" in Harbin and to ask that the U.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) put this site on its World Heritage list.
50 Harris, Factories of Death, p. 31-56.
51 Information on the History Channel Web site [http://www.historychannel.com/] and from discussion with AETV customer relations representative, December 3, 1999. This program can be ordered through the History Channel Web site.
52 "JapanÕs Auschwitz" Revealed; Nation Confronts Unit 731's Cruelty. Phoenix [Ariz.] Gazette, September 30, 1994. p. A6. Japanese language books on Unit 731 include Seiichi Morimura's 1981 The Devil's Gluttony, a three-volume fictional narrative based on historical research, and Keiichi Tsuneishi's later book, The Biological Warfare Unit That Disappeared. Wartime Skeletons Return to Haunt Japan: Human Remains Found on a Tokyo Building Site Have Revived the Ghosts of Japan's Experiments with Biological Weapons. The New Scientist, February 25, 1995. p.12.
53 Japanese War Crimes Are Still Coming to Light; The So-Called "Asian Holocaust" Was Covered Up by the Americans, Some Experts Say. The Orlando Sentinel, March 14, 1999. p. A6. "Chinese researchers say they keep uncovering new sites where anthrax, typhoid, plague and other diseases were spread, wiping out perhaps hundreds of thousands of Chinese."
54 Death Factories. New York Times Book Review, January 23, 2000. p. 22. A low estimate of 850 POW experimentees is cited in this book review of The Biology of Doom: The History of America's Secret Germ Warfare Project. See: Japan Rebuffs Requests for Information, New York Times, March 4, 1999, for an estimate of 10,000.
55 Harris, Factories of Death, p. 49.
56 See: Human Guinea Pigs 'Advanced Medical Science'; Japan, the Shame of Unit 731. The Independent (London), April 16, 1995, p. 14, for information on a former Unit 731 member who said he saw specimen jars of organs labeled Chinese, Korean, and later Russian, American, French, and British. See: Japanese Doctor Lectures as Penance for Horrors Inflicted on War Prisoners. The Washington Times, May 21, 1995, p. A1, for the allegation that American, Australian, British, Chinese and Russian POWs were injected with tetanus, anthrax, bubonic plague and other germs. Also see A Half Century of Denial, U.S. News & World Report, for a statement by Chinese Unit 731 expert Han Xiao that American POWs at Mukden were injected with bacteria to test their immunity.
57 Harris, Factories of Death, p. 57-82.
58 Ibid., p. 130.
The one reported instance of punishment for vivisection of American POWs was that of the trial and conviction of several doctors from the anatomy department of Kyushu University who dissected captured U.S. crewmen of a B-29 which crashed on May 5, 1945. Of the dozen U.S. airmen who parachuted down, at least nine were taken into custody. All but the crew's captain, who was sent to Tokyo for interrogation, were subjected to vivisection experiments similar to those done at Unit 731. Thirty people were brought to trial by the Allied war crimes tribunal in Yokohama on March 11, 1948, on charges of vivisection, wrongful removal of body parts, and cannibalism. Of the accused, 23 were found guilty of various charges (cannibalism charges were dismissed for lack of proof), five were sentenced to death, four to life imprisonment, and the rest to shorter terms. In September 1950, General MacArthur reduced most of the sentences and by 1958 all those convicted were free. None of the death sentences was carried out.- Japan Admits Dissecting WWII POWs. The Denver Post, June 1, 1995. p. A2.
59 Ex-POWs Suspect Germ Test Cover-Up; Japan and the U.S. Say the Records of the WWII Experiments Were Destroyed. Austin American-Statesman, March 31, 1995. p. A18.
60 U.S. Congress. House. Veterans' Affairs Committee. Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations. Veterans Administration Programs in Montana. Hearing, 97th Congress, 2nd session, June 19, 1982. Washington, GPO, 1982. p. 19.
61 Several such statements are cited in material inserted into the Congressional Record on November 10, 1999, by Senator Feinstein, in her remarks introducing S. 1902, the Japanese Imperial Army Disclosure Act of 1999. See Congressional Record, 106th Congress, 2nd session, November 10, 1999. p. S14541-7.
62 U.S. Congress. House. Veterans Affairs Committee. Subcommittee on Compensation, Pension, and Insurance. Treatment of American Prisoners of War in Manchuria. Hearing, 99th Congress, 2nd session, September 17, 1986. Washington, GPO, 1986. p. 16.
63 Secret File: Japanese Scientists Experimented on U.S. Prisoners. Orlando Sentinel, August 15, 1995. p. A1.
See also Truth Emerging on Ailing POWs, Japan Germ Unit. Los Angeles Times, March 20, 1995. p. A1.
64 Letter dated December 17, 1998, on Department of Justice Criminal Division stationery, headed "RE: U.S. Non-Prosecution of Japanese War Criminals" and sent to Rabbi Abraham Cooper, Associate Dean, Simon Wiesenthal Center, Los Angeles, CA. Copy faxed to the author on July 5, 2000 by Eli M. Rosenbaum, Director, Office of Special Investigations, Department of Justice.
65 Lawyers Target Japanese Abuses; WWII Compensation Effort Shifts From Europe to Asia. Washington Post, March 5, 2000. p. A1.See also High-Stakes Conflict Brings Out the Most Inhumane Research. The San Diego Union-Tribune, August 9, 1995. p. E1. See: Japan Confirms WWII Tests on Humans. United Press International, April l 7, 1982. Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: ALLNWS. Japanese Social Welfare Ministry official Kikuo Moriyama states that Lt. General Shiro Ishii received $90,000 in government pension payments until his death.
66 Japan Blood Supplier, Facing H.I.V Penalty, to Be Acquired. New York Times, February 25, 1997. Section D, p. 7. For example, according to this article, Ryoichi Naito, founder and chairman of the Green Cross Corporation, a pharmaceutical company that became the largest producer of blood products in Japan, was one of Ishii's officers; and Dr. Hisato Yoshimura, who directed Unit 731's frostbite experiments, became president of Kyoto Medical College and was an advisor to Japan's Antarctic expedition. According to another New York Times article, other Unit 731 members went on to be governor of Tokyo, president of the Japanese Medical Association, and head of the Japanese Olympic Committee. See: Unmasking Horror - A special report; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity. New York Times, March 17, 1995. p. A. 1. Human Guinea Pigs 'Advanced Medical Science'; Japan/The Shame of Unit 731. The Independent (London, April 16, 1995. p. 14. This article asserted that members of Unit 731 served in senior positions in the National Hygiene Institute, the Ground Self-Defence Forces Medical School, and the universities of Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka.
67 Commentary; Tokyo Must Address the Actions of its Wartime 'Killing Machine'; War Crimes; Japan Conducted Medical Experiments on Prisoners; This Issue Has Never Been Publically Examined. Los Angeles Times, April 26, 1999. part B5.
68 Veterans' Affairs Committee, Treatment of American Prisoners of War in Manchuria, p. 9.
69 Japan Rebuffs Requests for Information ..., New York Times, March 4, 1999. Statement by Japanese Embassy spokesman Tsuyoshi Yamamoto that his government would not comment because this matter concerned "... the specifics of Japanese cooperation with the United States, which are of a diplomatic nature." See also Revisiting World War II Atrocities; Comparing the Unspeakable to the Unthinkable. New York Times, March 7, 1999. Section 4, p. 4.
70 See the VA Fact Sheet, "Facts About the 1973 St. Louis Fire and Lost Records," available at the VA Web site [http://www.va.gov/pressrel/stlouis.htm] about the fire that took place.
71 GIs Tell of Germ Horrors in Japan. Washington Times, March 10, 1995. p. A17.
72 WWII Apology Fails to Find a Voice in Japan; Asia: Lower House Approves A Statement on War Actions That Wins Praise Neither at Home nor Abroad. Los Angeles Times, June 10, 1995. p. A12. Asia Underwhelmed by JapanÕs Apology; Statement on WWII Gets Tepid Reaction Elsewhere, But Could Play Well Politically at Home. Washington Post, August 16, 1995. p. A21. Lawyers Target Japanese Abuses; WWII Compensation Effort Shifts From Europe to Asia. Washington Post, March 5, 2000. p. A1.
73 "Sorry? Japan Has Been Talking of Apology in the Approach to Today's Anniversary of Its Attack on Pearl Harbor. But Does It Actually Go Any Deeper Than Talk?" The Daily Telegraph (London), December 7, 1991. p. 15.
74 Miyazawa Expresses 'Remorse'; Japanese Premier Calls Pearl Harbor 'Unbearable Blow.' Washington Post, December 7, 1991. p. A1.
75 Miyazawa Proclaims 1992 Test Year for Japan's Int'l Role. Kyodo News Service, Japan Economic Newswire, January 24, 1992 [Online]. Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: ALLNWS.
76 Japan Makes First Apology for Conduct in WWII. The Boston Globe, August 15, 1995. p. 1.
77 Japan Apologizes to Itself for Pearl Harbor; "Deeply Regrettable" Lapse by Diplomats Said to Have Brought Shame to the Country. Washington Post, November 22, 1994. p. A23.
78 Premier of Japan Offers 'Apology' for Its War Acts. New York Times, August 15, 1995. p. A1.
79 Japanese Apology Still Falls Short [editorial]. Omaha World Herald, August 19, 1995. p. 46.
80 Lawyers Target Japanese Abuses. Washington Post, March 5, 2000. p. A1.
81 Asia Underwhelmed by Japan's Apology; Statement on WWII Gets Tepid Reaction Elsewhere, But Could Play Well Politically at Home. Washington Post, August 16, 1995. p. A21.
82 Clinton Thanks Japan for WWII Apology; Vets Praised for Spirit of Reconciliation. Washington Times, September 2, 1995. p. A1. Public Papers of the Presidents: William J. Clinton. Remarks at the Joint Service Review ... Honolulu, Hawaii, September 1, 1995. Washington, GPO, 1996. 1995: Book II, p. 1278.
83 U.S. Congress. House. Judiciary Committee. Administrative Law and Governmental Relations Subcommittee. Hearing on H.R. 3188 Permitting Bataan Death March Prisoners to Sue in U.S. Court of Claims. 98th Congress, 2nd session, June 14, 1984. Washington, GPO, 1984. p. 25-27.
84 See Section 3(a)(1) and 3(a)(1)(D) of the Act.
85 National Coordinating Committee for the Promotion of History. [Online] [http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/~ncc/] NCC Washington Update, v. 6, no. 21, June 22, 2000.
86 U.S. Congress. Senate. Judiciary Committee. Hearing on POW Survivors of the Bataan Death March, June 28, 2000 [Online]. Available NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS.
87 "Bill Could Hamper Investigation into U.S. Knowledge of Japanese Atrocities"; "Congress: Plans to Extend an Inquiry into the Intelligence Community's WWII Dealings Have Hit a Roadblock, But Historians Vow To Continue Working." Los Angeles Times, October 26, 2000. p. A22.
88 U.S. Congress. Senate. Judiciary Committee. Former U.S. World War II POW's: A Struggle for Justice. Hearing, 106th Congress, 2nd session, June 28, 2000. S. Hrg. 106-585. Serial No. J-106-94.
89 Ibid.
90 Former POWs Blast Federal Opposition to Lawsuits Against Japanese Companies. Associated Press, June 28, 2000 [Online]. Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS.
91 Japanese Court Rejects WWII Lawsuits. National Law Journal, December 14, 1998. p. A11.
92 Japan's War Victims in New Battle; Growing Movement Is Using Lawsuits, Legislation to Bring Attention to Crimes, But Tokyo Feels It has Done Its Part and Some Americans Fear Rekindling of Animosities. Los Angeles Times, August 16, 1999. p. A1. In declaring that it had already paid sufficient compensation, Japanese government spokesmen pointed to the $27 billion in government-to-government payments that it had already made. This statement apparently referred to a 1993 report in Japanese, titled "Problems Arising From Post War Reparations: Overview," written by Takashi Tsukamoto of the National Diet Library.
93 U.S. Stance on Reparations by Japan Angers Ex-POWs. Los Angeles Times, June 28, 2000. Part A, part. 1, p. 3.
94 Washington Conference on Holocaust-Era Assets, November 30-December 5, 1998. Proceedings. Washington, GPO, 1999. See p. 626 for figure of 102.1 billion Deutsche Marks (DM) paid in compensation through January 1, 1998, with at least another DM24 billion in payments to come.
95 These settlement efforts follow on the initial 1995 settlement for Hugo Princz and others. See U.S. Department of State. Office of the Legal Advisor. The U.S.-Germany Nazi Persecution (Princz) Agreement [handout]. [Washington, 1999?] See also Germany Will Pay Victims of Nazis. Washington Times, June 22, 1999. p. A13. For more detail, one can go to the Holocaust Museum Web site at [http://www.ushmm.org/assets/frg.htm]. Similar information is also available at the Department of Justice's Foreign Claims Settlement Commission Web site at [http://www.usdoj.gov/fcsc/].
96 Germany Passes Nazi Slave Fund. Associated Press wire story, July 6, 2000
[Online].[http://www.stiftungsinitiative.de/eindex.html].
97 Canada to Compensate Veterans Captured by Japan at Hong Kong. Associated Press wire story, December 12, 1998 [Online]. Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: ALLNWS.
98 Canada. Receiver General. Public Accounts of Canada, 1999. [Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1999] v. II, part II, Additional Information and Analyses. p. 10.20-10.27.
99 A news report on this decision also stated that in June 2000 the Isle of Man decided to pay £10,000 to its POWs and mentioned that the Swiss government had given its soldiers who were POWs of the Japanese a payment of £2,000 each in 1955. - Pounds 10,000 Payout to Japan POWs; 'Debt of Honor' Repaid After 50-Year Struggle. The Guardian (London), November 8, 2000. p. 12.
100 Former U.S., Foreign POWs Sue Japan Firms for Forced Labor. Japan Policy and Politics, April 17, 2000 [Online]. Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS. California Calls on Japan to Apologize for War Crimes. Japan Policy and Politics, August 30, 1999 [Online]. Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS. Treaty Might Ban POWÕs Suit Against Japanese Firms. Albuquerque Journal, September 16, 1999. p. B1. WWII Vets Revive Grievances With Japan; U.S. Ambassador Says Claims Over Forced Labor Not Valid Under Peace Treaty. Washington Post, January 19, 2000. p. A17.
101 POWs Who Sued Japanese Firms Likely to Appeal Ruling. San Diego Union-Tribune, September 23, 2000. p. A7.
102 U.S. Ex-POWs Intensify Compensation Campaign. Kyodo News Service, Japan Economic Newswire, May 20, 2000 [Online]. Available: NEXIS Library: NEWS File: CURNWS.
103 Forced Labor Settlement Set Precedent Fujikoshi, Plaintiffs Agrees on 30 Mil. Yen At Supreme Court. The Daily Yomiuri (Tokyo), July 19, 2000. p. 3.
104 Fund for Wartime Slaves Set Up in Japan. New York Times, November 30, 2000. p. A14.
105 Japanese Veteran Testifies in War Atrocity Suit. New York Times, December 21, 2000. p. A3.
In addition, two recently released scholarly books continue the reevaluation of Japan's alleged WWII atrocities and relations between the United States and Japan immediately after the war that could have an impact on the issue of compensation for U.S. POWs. The first work, a very heavily researched book by Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (Harper Collins, New York, 2000), alleges that Emperor Hirohito was a full and active participant in the planning and prosecution of the war.
The other book, by John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York, W.W. Norton, 1999), alleges that U.S. occupation authorities deliberately portrayed the Emperor as having little or no power or responsibility for WWII, so that they did not have to try him as a war criminal. This way, he says, they could use the Emperor as a powerful pacifying and unifying force to make the occupation more acceptable to the Japanese. This book also touches on occupation authoritiesÕ dealings with Unit 731 personnel.